D: Incorrect – “Might” is not one of the fairness theory counterfactual types.
Q4
In fairness theory, discretionary action refers to:
A
A legally mandated behavior
B
An act taken out of necessity
C
An action that could have been chosen differently
D
A collective group decision
Correct Answer: C
A: Incorrect – Legally mandated actions are not discretionary.
B: Incorrect – Acts taken out of necessity lack discretion.
C: Correct – Discretionary actions imply choice.
D: Incorrect – Group decisions are not necessarily discretionary for an individual.
Q5
Which of the following best explains why counterfactual thinking is essential to fairness theory?
A
It provides legal evidence
B
It shows us what others believe
C
It helps identify preventable harms
D
It justifies punishment
Correct Answer: C
A: Incorrect – Fairness theory isn’t primarily a legal doctrine.
B: Incorrect – It’s about self-evaluation, not social consensus.
C: Correct – Counterfactual thinking clarifies when harms could have been avoided.
D: Incorrect – It’s not about justifying punishment.
Q6
Which of these best illustrates a “could” counterfactual?
A
A supervisor’s rude remark violates a policy.
B
An employee wonders how the meeting would’ve gone if they’d arrived early.
C
A manager chose public ridicule over private feedback.
D
A colleague evaluates another’s moral choices.
Correct Answer: C
A: Incorrect – That’s about “should,” not “could.”
B: Incorrect – That’s more like “would.”
C: Correct – “Could” involves imagining feasible alternatives to an action.
D: Incorrect – “Should” fits better here.
Q7
In the case study involving Bill and his eye condition, which element of accountability is most clearly illustrated?
A
Legal compliance
B
Attribution of harm
C
Team dynamics
D
Motivational theory
Correct Answer: B
A: Incorrect – Legal compliance wasn’t the focus.
B: Correct – Harm was linked to the supervisor’s discretionary actions.
C: Incorrect – Team dynamics were not emphasized.
D: Incorrect – Motivation wasn’t central to this analysis.
Q8
When are individuals most likely to feel a violation of fairness has occurred?
A
When harm occurs with no discretion involved
B
When expectations are unclear
C
When all three accountability components are present
D
When rules are followed
Correct Answer: C
A: Incorrect – Without discretion, accountability isn’t clear.
B: Incorrect – Clarity of expectations affects perception but isn’t sufficient.
C: Correct – Harm, discretion, and standard violation must all be present.
D: Incorrect – Rule-following doesn’t eliminate the perception of unfairness.
Q9
Which of the following is NOT an example of a normative standard?
A
Treating colleagues with respect
B
Adhering to organizational policies
C
Maximizing shareholder profit
D
Ensuring moral accountability
Correct Answer: C
A: Incorrect – Respect is a common ethical standard.
B: Incorrect – Policies are normative standards in organizations.
C: Correct – Maximizing profit is a business goal, not a normative standard of fairness.
D: Incorrect – Moral accountability reflects normative evaluation.
Q10
Why is it problematic to assign blame without a clear discretionary action?
A
The person might sue
B
It reduces employee engagement
C
There is no basis for accountability
D
It increases litigation risk
Correct Answer: C
A: Incorrect – Legal threat is not central to fairness theory.
B: Incorrect – Engagement may drop, but that’s not the key principle.
C: Correct – Without discretion, blame lacks foundation in fairness theory.
D: Incorrect – The theory is not focused on litigation.
Q11
What makes a counterfactual scenario psychologically powerful in fairness judgments?
A
It always reflects legal violations
B
It activates self-serving bias
C
It highlights a contrast between actual and imagined outcomes
D
It demonstrates statistical significance
Correct Answer: C
A: Incorrect – Legal violations are not required for counterfactuals.
B: Incorrect – Fairness theory focuses on perceived accountability, not bias.
C: Correct – The contrast intensifies the perception of unfairness.
D: Incorrect – This is a research method term, not relevant here.
Q12
In the workplace ridicule scenario, Rachel’s feedback would be considered unfair primarily because:
A
It was sarcastic
B
It was public, discretionary, and violated norms
C
Adam didn't like her
D
Rachel didn't explain herself
Correct Answer: B
A: Incorrect – Sarcasm alone isn’t sufficient for unfairness
B: Correct – All three fairness criteria are met: harm, discretion, and violation
C: Incorrect – Personal dislike isn’t the issue
D: Incorrect – Explanation matters, but is not central to fairness theory
Q13
Why does fairness theory emphasize normative standards?
A
To ensure decisions are legally binding
B
To frame fairness judgments within values and expectations
C
To reduce procedural complexity
D
To shift focus from harm to emotion
Correct Answer: B
A: Incorrect – Legal standards are not the core focus
B: Correct – Normative standards guide judgments of what “should” be done
C: Incorrect – Fairness theory is not a bureaucratic tool
D: Incorrect – It integrates, not shifts away from, harm
Q14
If a participant imagines an alternative outcome where they are treated better, which type of counterfactual are they using?
A
Should
B
Might
C
Could
D
Would
Correct Answer: D
A: Incorrect – “Should” is about moral obligation
B: Incorrect – “Might” is not a recognized category
C: Incorrect – “Could” is about possibilities
D: Correct – “Would” involves imagining a better outcome
Q15
Fairness theory is best described as:
A
A theory of motivation
B
A descriptive model of justice judgments
C
A statistical framework for bias
D
A procedural law model
Correct Answer: B
A: Incorrect – While it touches motivation, it's not its focus
B: Correct – Fairness theory describes how we form fairness judgments
C: Incorrect – It's conceptual, not statistical
D: Incorrect – It's not a legal theory
Q16
What is a key limitation of applying fairness theory in cross-cultural settings?
A
Different languages use different terms for fairness
B
Access to legal representation varies
C
Normative standards may vary across cultures
D
Counterfactual thinking is illegal in some contexts
Correct Answer: C
A: Incorrect – Language is not the focus
B: Incorrect – Legal access isn’t central here
C: Correct – What counts as fair or unfair depends on cultural norms
D: Incorrect – Counterfactual thinking is a cognitive process
Q17
If all three components of accountability are missing, fairness theory would predict:
A
Increased cooperation
B
Strong feelings of injustice
C
No blame is assigned
D
Escalating conflict
Correct Answer: C
A: Incorrect – Cooperation is unrelated to this prediction
B: Incorrect – Injustice requires at least one fairness element
C: Correct – Without harm, discretion, and standard violation, blame is unlikely
D: Incorrect – Conflict might occur, but is not the direct prediction
Q18
In the Bill scenario, which counterfactual helps Bill assess the supervisor’s accountability?
A
Could
B
Would
C
Should
D
All of the above
Correct Answer: D
A: Incorrect – Not sufficient alone
B: Incorrect – Not sufficient alone
C: Incorrect – Not sufficient alone
D: Correct – All three contribute to a full evaluation
Q19
Which of the following best applies the fairness theory concept of discretionary behavior?
A
A robot failing to perform its task
B
A nurse refusing a patient due to personal bias
C
An HR system auto-assigning shifts
D
An algorithm misclassifying resumes
Correct Answer: B
A: Incorrect – Robots lack discretion
B: Correct – This is a human discretionary action
C: Incorrect – Auto-assignment lacks human discretion
D: Incorrect – Algorithms are not human decision-makers
Q20
Which component of fairness theory relates most closely to values, ethics, and societal norms?
A
Harm
B
Discretion
C
Standards
D
Blame
Correct Answer: C
A: Incorrect – Harm describes outcome, not norms
B: Incorrect – Discretion is about control, not ethics
C: Correct – Standards guide moral and normative evaluation
D: Incorrect – Blame is the result, not a component
Application Questions
Application Q1
In your dissertation research, identify a real or hypothetical decision-maker. Describe a possible negative outcome and analyze it using the three fairness theory components (harm, discretion, and violation of standards).
What harm occurred?
Was the action discretionary?
Which standard was violated?
Application Q2
Think about a conflict or injustice experienced by participants in your dissertation research context. Apply the “would,” “could,” and “should” counterfactuals to analyze perceptions of fairness.
What better outcome would you imagine?
What alternatives could have been chosen?
What should have happened according to norms?
Application Q3
How might participants in your dissertation research evaluate a policy change as fair or unfair based on counterfactual comparisons?
What would a better policy outcome look like?
Could leaders have chosen a different approach?
Should certain standards guide the change?
Application Q4
Create a vignette in your field where someone experiences unfavorable conditions. Ask yourself: who would be held accountable, and why?
Identify the responsible actor.
Explain the discretionary action.
Note the violated standard.
Application Q5
Identify a policy or leadership decision in your dissertation context. Apply the accountability framework to assess how the decision’s fairness might be judged.
Was harm produced?
Did the decision involve discretion?
Were standards violated?
Application Q6
Write a reflection on how counterfactual thinking could shape how stakeholders interpret the success or failure of a leadership intervention in your study.
What better outcomes would they imagine?
What alternatives could have been pursued?
What should have happened?
Application Q7
Describe a situation in your professional setting where discretion plays a key role. How might that affect judgments of fairness?
What choices were available?
How does discretion influence perceived fairness?
Application Q8
Design a short interview question or survey item to assess whether participants are engaging in counterfactual thinking about fairness.
Draft a sample item.
Explain what responses would reveal.
Application Q9
Reflect on how perceived violations of moral or professional standards influence trust and cooperation in your dissertation context.
How does a standard violation affect trust?
How does it influence cooperation?
Application Q10
Apply fairness theory to analyze an instance of “symbolic” leadership (e.g., a public statement). Did it create perceptions of fairness or hypocrisy?
Describe the symbolic act.
Assess fairness versus hypocrisy.
Application Q11
Choose a leadership decision in your dissertation research context. Which counterfactual (would, could, should) best explains how stakeholders evaluate its fairness?
Which counterfactual dominates?
Why?
Application Q12
Identify an instance in your research where discretion in decision-making may be ambiguous. How would this ambiguity influence perceptions of fairness?
Describe the ambiguity.
Predict its effect on fairness judgments.
Application Q13
Design a small qualitative study or interview protocol that investigates how individuals construct fairness counterfactuals in your professional setting.
Outline key questions.
Explain your method.
Application Q14
Write a short analysis applying fairness theory to a case in your field where leadership claims values like equity or justice. How might discrepancies between speech and action be judged?
Identify the claimed values.
Evaluate discrepancies using fairness theory.
Application Q15
Identify a possible normative standard in your dissertation topic area. How might its violation trigger blame?
State the standard.
Describe potential blame reactions.
Application Q16
Consider a stakeholder group in your dissertation research. How might fairness perceptions shape their support or resistance to a proposed change?
How would fairness perceptions encourage support?
How might they cause resistance?
Application Q17
How could fairness theory help you design a more ethically sensitive intervention or program in your professional setting?
Incorporate harm, discretion, and standards into the design.
Application Q18
Imagine you’re presenting your dissertation findings to a policymaker. How might fairness theory help you frame your results in a compelling way?
Highlight harm.
Note discretionary actions.
Reference violated standards.
Application Q19
Reflect on a time when your own professional judgments were influenced by fairness perceptions. How does that help you understand your participants better?
Describe the experience.
Connect it to participant perspectives.
Application Q20
Create a hypothetical post-intervention survey question using fairness theory constructs. How would it help you evaluate outcomes?
